There is No Bad Religion. There are Only Bad People
Keywords:
Hatred, Religious Harassment, Workplace Exclusion, Social Identity Theory
Abstract
Religious diversity has become an important issue for organizations. Religious diversity brings many challenges for managers and HR policymakers. Organizations cannot overrule the chances of religious harassment. Pakistani organizations are highly diverse, with a workforce of various religious backgrounds. The objective of this study was to find out the role of hatred as an antecedent and perceived workplace exclusion as an outcome for religious harassment among employees of public and private sector organizations. Con- firmatory factor analysis was performed for validation of factor structure. Convenience sampling, a non-random sampling technique, was used for data collection, and the size of the sample was determined by G*Power (Hair et al., 2014). Using the SEM method, we tested our model's hypothesis with three hundred and ninety-eight employees. Results have shown expected associations between study constructs, such that hatred was found significantly correlated with religious harassment, and religious harassment was significantly correlated to workplace exclusion. In comparison, religious harassment mediated the relationship between hatred and workplace exclusion. Organizations need to address the issue by fabricating a religiously diverse culture with suitable policies and training. By proposing that the negative emotion landscape can trigger a range of socially undesirable outcomes, we tried to highlight the research that may benefit employers, and findings extend to understand context-specific concepts of perceived workplace exclusion. Religious harassment negatively influences employees and the workplace climate. It has severe repercussions for the repute of organizations.
References
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Brudholm, T., & Lang, J. (2021). On Hatred and Dehumanization 1. In The Routledge Handbook of Dehumanization (pp. 341-354). New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429492464-chapter22
Cantone, J. A., & Wiener, R. L. (2017). Religion at work: Evaluating hostile work environment religious discrimination claims. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23(3), 351. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000132
Cates, S. V. (2021). Has Religious Discrimination Been Eradicated From the Work Environment or Has It Merely Taken on Another Form? The Journal of Business Diversity, 21(2), 47-59. https://doi.org/10.33423/jbd.v21i2.4318
Choi, S. A., & Hastings, J. F. (2019). Religion, spirituality, coping, and resilience among African Americans with diabetes. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 38(1), 93-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2018.1524735
Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, 42 USC § 2000e et seq.
Cragun, R. T., Kosmin, B., Keysar, A., Hammer, J. H., & Nielsen, M. (2012). On the receiving end: Discrimination toward the non-religious in the United States. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 27(1), 105-127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2012.642741
Fox, J. (2000). The effects of religious discrimination on ethno-religious protest and rebellion. Journal of Conflict Studies, 20(2).
Floyer-Acland, A. A. (2021). Religious hatred and its contribution to human conflict: exploring psychodynamic approaches and some implications for dialogue and diapraxis (Doctoral dissertation). University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
Frijda, N. H. (1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43, 349. https://doi.10.1037%2F0003-066X.43.5.349
Ghumman, S., Ryan, A. M., & Park, J. S. (2016). Religious harassment in the workplace: An examination of observer intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37, 279-306. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2044
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Análise multivariada de dados. Bookman editora.
Halperin, E. (2008). Group-based hatred in intractable conflict in Israel. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 52, 713-736 https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002708314665
Halperin, E., Canetti-Nisim, D., & Hirsch-Hoefler, S. (2009). The central role of group-based hatred as an emotional antecedent of political
intolerance: Evidence from Israel. Political Psychology, 30, 93-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00682.x
Halperin, E., Canetti-Nisim, D., & Kimhi, S. (2007). In love with hatred: A longitudinal study on the political consequences of group-based hatred. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
Halperin, E., Russell, A. G., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Anger, hatred, and the quest for peace: Anger can be constructive in the absence of hatred. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 55(2), 274-291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002710383670
Hambler, A. (2016). Managing workplace religious expression within the legal constraints. Employee Relations. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-03-2015-0054
Halperin, E., Sharvit, K., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Emotion and emotion regulation in conflict: An appraisal-based framework. Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: A social psychological perspective, 249.
Hicks, D. A. (2003). Religion and the workplace: Pluralism, spirituality, leadership. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511615474
Hirschi, T., & Stark, R. (1969). Hellfire and delinquency. Social Problems, 17, 202-213. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.1969.17.2.03a00050
Hitlan, R. T. , Kelly, K. M., Schepman, S., Schneider, K. T. , & Zá rate, M. A. (2006). Language exclusion and the consequences of perceived ostracism in the workplace. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 10(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.10.1.56
Hitlan, R. T., & Noel, J. (2009). The influence of workplace exclusion and personality on counterproductive work behaviors: An interactionist perspective. EuropeanJournal ofWork and Organizational Psychology, 18, 477-502. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320903025028
Hoffmann, E. A. (2016). Emotions and emotional labor at worker-owned businesses: Deep acting, surface acting, and genuine emotions. The Sociological Quarterly, 57, 152-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/tsq.12113
Hope Pelled, L., Ledford, Jr, G. E., & Albers Mohrman, S. (1999). Demographic dissimilarity and workplace inclusion. Journal of Management studies, 36, 1013-1031. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00168
Hopkins, D. J., Sides, J., & Citrin, J. (2019). The muted consequences of correct information about immigration. The Journal of Politics, 81, 315-320. https://doi/abs/10.1086/699914
Hussain, A., Salı̄m, A., & Naveed, A. (2011). Connecting the dots: education and religious discrimination in Pakistan: A study of public schools and Madrassas. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom.
Khattak, S. A., & Bashir, S. (2018). Evaluation of Union Commitment in Public sector Organizations of Pakistan: A Time Lagged study. Abasyn University Journal of Social Sciences, 11(1).
King Jr, J. E., Bell, M. P., & Lawrence, E. (2009). Religion as an aspect of workplace diversity: An examination of the US context and a call for international research. Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion, 6(1), 43-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766080802648631
Kipling, D., Williams, F., Forgas, J. P., von Hippel, W., & Williams, K. D. (2005). The Social Outcast: Ostracism, Social Exclusion, Rejection, & Bullying. Psychology Press.
Köllen, T. , & Kopf, S. (2021). Ostracism and nationalism in the workplace: discursive exclusionary practices between cultural and geographic neighbors. Review of Managerial Science, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-021-00454-z
Kressel, G. M. (1996). Ascendancy through aggression: The anatomy of a blood feud among urbanized Bedouins (Vol. 12). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
Kristeva, J. (2011). This incredible need to believe. Columbia University Press.
Maoz, I., & McCauley, C. (2008). Threat, dehumanization, and support for retaliatory aggressive policies in asymmetric conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 52, 93-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002707308597
Messarra, L. C. (2014). Religious diversity at work: The perceptual effects of religious discrimination on employee engagement and commitment. Contemporary Management Research, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.7903/cmr.12018
Montalvo, J. G., & Reynal-Querol, M. (2019). Religion and Conflict: A Quantitative Approach. In Advances in the Economics of Religion (pp. 249-263). Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98848-1_15
Murshed, S. M. (2011). The clash of civilizations and the interaction between fear and hatred. International Area Studies Review, 14(1), 31-48. https://doi.org/10.1177/223386591101400102
Nayyar, A. H., & Salim, A. (2003). The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Textbooks in Pakistan," a report of the "Civil Society Initiative in Curricula and Textbooks Reform" project. Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1-2.
Ohly, S., & Schmitt, A. (2015). What makes us enthusiastic, angry, feeling at rest or worried? Development and validation of an affective work events taxonomy using concept mapping methodology. Journal of Business and Psychology, 30, 15-35. https://10.1007/s10869-013-9328-3
Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni. https://DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511571299
Royzman, E. B., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (2005). From Plato to Putnam: Four Ways to Think About Hate. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The psychology of hate (pp. 3–35). American Psychological Association http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10930-001
Ryan, A. M., & Gardner, D. M. (2021). Religious harassment and bullying in the workplace. Dignity and Inclusion at Work, 463-487. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0218-3_16
Scott, K. L., Tams, S., Schippers, M. C., & Lee, K. (2015). Opening the black box: Why and when workplace exclusion affects social reconnection behaviour, health, and attitudes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(2), 239-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2014.894978
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Published
2021-12-22
How to Cite
Um-e-Rubbab, Muhammad Irshad, & Sana Aroos Khattak. (2021). There is No Bad Religion. There are Only Bad People. Journal of Management Practices, Humanities and Social Sciences, 5(6), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.33152/jmphss-5.6.1
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